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European History Unit 2: Age of Reformation (c. 1450–1648)

The Protestant Reformation split Western Christianity, the Catholic Church reformed itself, and religious wars reshaped Europe.

Covers: Luther and the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism, the English Reformation, the Catholic Reformation, wars of religion, social and economic change

Study guide

In 1517, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses criticizing the sale of indulgences (payments to reduce punishment for sins). Luther taught salvation by faith alone, the authority of the Bible alone, and the priesthood of all believers. Supported by German princes and spread by the printing press, Lutheranism took hold in northern Germany and Scandinavia. The Peace of Augsburg (1555) let each German prince choose Lutheranism or Catholicism for his territory (cuius regio, eius religio).

John Calvin, in Geneva, taught predestination: God has already chosen who will be saved. Calvinism spread to the Netherlands, Scotland (Presbyterians), France (Huguenots) and England (Puritans). In England, Henry VIII broke with Rome when the pope refused to annul his marriage, creating the Church of England with the Act of Supremacy (1534). Elizabeth I later established a moderate Protestant settlement. Radical groups like the Anabaptists rejected infant baptism.

The Catholic Church responded with the Catholic (Counter-) Reformation. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine while ending abuses, the Jesuits (founded by Ignatius of Loyola) spread Catholicism through education and missions, and the Index of Prohibited Books banned heretical works. Religious wars followed. In France, the conflict between Catholics and Huguenots included the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) and ended with the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted Huguenots toleration. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) devastated the Holy Roman Empire; the Peace of Westphalia (1648) recognized Calvinism, weakened the emperor and established the principle of state sovereignty.

Philip II of Spain, a champion of Catholicism, faced the Dutch Revolt beginning in 1566. The mostly Calvinist northern provinces resisted his taxes and religious persecution and became the independent Dutch Republic, formally recognized in 1648. His Spanish Armada failed to invade Protestant England in 1588. Because the Peace of Augsburg left out Calvinists, tensions grew, and in 1618 Bohemian Protestants revolted against Habsburg rule (the Defenestration of Prague). Catholic France under Cardinal Richelieu later fought on the Protestant side against the Habsburgs, which showed that state interests had begun to outweigh religion. Armies living off the land spread famine and disease and killed a large share of the population in parts of Germany.

Henry IV, a Huguenot, converted to Catholicism to secure the French throne and then issued the Edict of Nantes. He and other politiques put political stability ahead of religious unity. In the German Peasants' War (1524–1525), peasants cited Luther's ideas, but Luther sided with the princes who crushed them. Protestants closed convents, praised marriage and family life, and promoted Bible reading and literacy. Witch hunts, mostly targeting women, peaked in the late 1500s and 1600s.

England became more Protestant under Edward VI, and Mary I restored Catholicism and executed Protestants. Elizabeth I's 1559 settlement then made the Church of England moderately Protestant, with the monarch as its head. Mannerism, with elongated figures and emotional tension, followed the High Renaissance. The dramatic, grand Baroque style, seen in the work of Bernini and Rubens, was promoted by the Catholic Church to inspire devotion and by absolute monarchs to display their power.

Key ideas

• Luther taught salvation by faith alone and the authority of scripture.
• Calvin taught predestination, and Calvinism spread widely.
• Henry VIII created the Church of England for political reasons.
• The Council of Trent and the Jesuits led the Catholic Reformation.
• The Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War and strengthened state sovereignty.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Thinking Henry VIII broke with Rome over doctrine; it was over his marriage annulment.
• Thinking the Peace of Augsburg recognized Calvinism; only Westphalia did.

Words to know

Indulgence

A payment to the Church to reduce punishment for sins.

95 Theses

Luther's 1517 list of criticisms of the Church.

Salvation by faith alone

Luther's teaching that faith, not good works, saves.

Priesthood of all believers

The idea that all Christians can approach God directly.

Peace of Augsburg

1555 treaty letting German princes choose Lutheranism or Catholicism.

Predestination

Calvin's teaching that God has already chosen who is saved.

Huguenots

French Calvinists.

Act of Supremacy

1534 law making the English monarch head of the Church of England.

Anabaptists

Radical Protestants who rejected infant baptism.

Council of Trent

Catholic council that reaffirmed doctrine and reformed abuses.

Jesuits

Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola to spread the faith.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

1572 killing of Huguenots in France.

Edict of Nantes

1598 decree granting Huguenots toleration.

Thirty Years' War

1618–1648 religious and political war in the Holy Roman Empire.

Peace of Westphalia

1648 treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War and recognized Calvinism.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.