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European History Unit 1: Renaissance and exploration (c. 1450–1648)

The Renaissance revived classical learning, the printing press spread ideas, and European states expanded overseas.

Covers: Italian Renaissance, Northern Renaissance, humanism, the printing press, New Monarchies, exploration and colonial expansion, the Commercial Revolution

Study guide

The Renaissance (rebirth) began in the Italian city-states, such as Florence, Venice and Milan, which were wealthy from trade and banking. Patrons like the Medici family funded art and learning. Humanism focused on human achievement and the study of classical Greek and Roman texts; Petrarch is called the father of humanism. Civic humanism encouraged educated people to serve the state, and Machiavelli's The Prince argued that rulers should be practical and willing to use any means to keep power. Renaissance art used perspective, realism and classical themes, as in the work of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

The Northern Renaissance applied humanism to Christianity. Erasmus criticized church corruption in In Praise of Folly and called for a return to simple Christian piety. Northern artists like Albrecht Dürer and Jan van Eyck focused on detailed realism and everyday life. Johannes Gutenberg's printing press (around 1450) made books cheaper, increased literacy, and spread both humanist and Reformation ideas quickly.

New Monarchies centralized power by building bureaucracies, standing armies and tax systems while limiting the nobility. Ferdinand and Isabella united Spain, completed the Reconquista in 1492 and launched the Spanish Inquisition, Henry VII founded the Tudor dynasty in England, and Louis XI strengthened France. Motives for exploration were gold, God and glory. Portugal sailed around Africa to Asia, Spain built an empire in the Americas, and later the Dutch, English and French set up colonies and trading posts. The Commercial Revolution brought joint-stock companies, banking and mercantilism, and the price revolution, caused by American silver, raised prices across Europe.

Unlike Spain, France and England, the Holy Roman Empire stayed fragmented. Power was shared among hundreds of princes, bishops and free cities, and seven electors chose the emperor, which limited his authority. Portugal built a trading-post empire of coastal forts in Africa and Asia, such as Goa and Malacca, while Spain conquered large territories and populations in the Americas. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided newly found lands between them. The later Dutch, English and French empires relied more on chartered companies, trade and settler colonies.

The Columbian Exchange brought American crops such as potatoes and maize to Europe, while European diseases devastated Native populations. The need for plantation labor, especially for sugar, drove the Atlantic slave trade. As Atlantic trade grew, Europe's economic center moved from the Mediterranean and the Italian city-states to Atlantic ports like Lisbon, Seville and Antwerp, and later Amsterdam and London.

The price revolution helped landowners and merchants who could raise rents and prices but hurt wage earners and people on fixed incomes. In Western Europe serfdom kept fading, while in Eastern Europe nobles imposed a 'second serfdom' so they could grow grain for export.

Key ideas

• The Renaissance began in wealthy Italian city-states.
• Humanism studied classical texts and celebrated human achievement.
• The printing press spread ideas and literacy.
• New Monarchies centralized power over the nobility.
• Exploration and the Commercial Revolution expanded European wealth.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Thinking the Renaissance rejected religion; most Renaissance figures were still Christian.
• Confusing Italian humanism (secular, civic) with Northern humanism (Christian reform).

Words to know

Renaissance

Revival of classical art and learning beginning in Italy.

Humanism

Focus on human achievement and the study of classical texts.

Patron

A wealthy person who funds artists and scholars.

Medici family

Florentine banking family that sponsored the arts.

Civic humanism

The idea that educated citizens should serve the state.

Machiavelli

Author of The Prince, which advised rulers to be practical.

Northern Renaissance

Renaissance in northern Europe focused on Christian reform.

Erasmus

Christian humanist who criticized church corruption.

Printing press

Gutenberg's movable-type press that spread books cheaply.

New Monarchies

Monarchs who centralized power over the nobility.

Reconquista

Christian reconquest of Spain from Muslim rulers, completed in 1492.

Spanish Inquisition

Church court in Spain that persecuted heretics.

Commercial Revolution

Expansion of trade, banking and business in early modern Europe.

Price revolution

Inflation in Europe caused by American silver.

Mercantilism

Economic policy aiming for a favorable balance of trade.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.