Home / Courses / US Government and Politics / Unit 5

US Government and Politics Unit 5: Political participation

Citizens participate through voting, parties, interest groups, campaigns and the media, each shaping who gets elected and what government does.

Covers: Voting rights and turnout, political parties, interest groups, elections and campaigns, campaign finance, the media

Study guide

Voting rights expanded through amendments: the Fifteenth (race), Nineteenth (sex), Twenty-Fourth (banned poll taxes) and Twenty-Sixth (age 18). Turnout is affected by age, education, income and how competitive an election is; structural barriers include registration rules and voter ID laws. Voters may choose rationally (self-interest), retrospectively (judging past performance), prospectively (predicting future performance) or by party-line voting.

Political parties recruit candidates, mobilize voters, organize government and link people to their leaders. The US has a two-party system, reinforced by winner-take-all, single-member districts; third parties rarely win but can raise issues and act as spoilers. Parties adapt through realignments and use candidate-centered campaigns and data. Interest groups lobby, file lawsuits, donate through political action committees (PACs) and mobilize members, but face the free-rider problem; iron triangles and issue networks connect them to government.

Presidential candidates win nominations through primaries and caucuses, then compete in the general election, where the Electoral College awards votes mostly winner-take-all by state. Congressional incumbents usually win thanks to name recognition, fundraising and gerrymandering. Campaign finance is regulated by laws like the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, but Citizens United v. FEC (2010) allowed unlimited independent spending by corporations and unions, leading to super PACs. The media act as gatekeepers, scorekeepers and watchdogs; the shift to cable and online news has increased partisan news and concerns about bias and misinformation.

Linkage institutions are channels that connect citizens to government and carry their preferences to policymakers. The four main ones are elections, political parties, interest groups and the media. Third-party and independent candidates must collect large numbers of signatures to get on each state's ballot. They often fall short of the polling cutoff to join presidential debates. Under winner-take-all rules they can win a large share of the popular vote and still get no electoral votes, which is why single-member plurality systems tend toward two parties.

Besides the constitutional amendments, Congress expanded access through the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 ('Motor Voter'). The second law requires states to offer registration at driver's license offices. Descriptive representation means elected officials share characteristics such as gender or race with the people they represent. Seeing candidates like themselves can raise underrepresented groups' efficacy, turnout and willingness to run for office.

Media coverage helps set the agenda by deciding which issues get attention, which can push Congress to investigate. With partisan cable and social media, people increasingly choose sources that match their views (selective exposure), creating echo chambers that deepen polarization. Many states let citizens act directly: an initiative puts a proposed law on the ballot by petition, a referendum lets voters approve or reject a law, and a recall lets voters remove an official before the term ends. There is no recall for federal officials.

Key ideas

• Amendments expanded the right to vote over time.
• Turnout depends on demographics and structural rules.
• The two-party system is reinforced by winner-take-all elections.
• Interest groups influence policy but face the free-rider problem.
• Citizens United reshaped campaign finance through super PACs.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Thinking the popular vote directly elects the president; the Electoral College does.
• Confusing PACs (limited contributions to candidates) with super PACs (unlimited independent spending).

Words to know

Voter turnout

The percentage of eligible people who vote.

Rational choice voting

Voting based on what benefits you most.

Retrospective voting

Voting based on a candidate's or party's past performance.

Prospective voting

Voting based on predictions of future performance.

Party-line voting

Voting for every candidate of one party.

Political party

An organization that runs candidates and seeks to control government.

Two-party system

A system dominated by two major parties.

Winner-take-all

The candidate with the most votes wins everything in that district or state.

Third party

A minor party that can raise issues or act as a spoiler.

Realignment

A lasting shift in party coalitions.

Interest group

An organization trying to influence policy.

Lobbying

Directly persuading officials on behalf of an interest group.

Free-rider problem

People benefit from a group's work without joining.

Political action committee (PAC)

A group that raises money for candidates within limits.

Super PAC

A group that can spend unlimited money independently of candidates.

Primary election

An election to choose a party's nominee.

Electoral College

The system of electors that chooses the president.

Incumbency advantage

Officeholders' edge in winning reelection.

Citizens United v. FEC

The 2010 ruling allowing unlimited independent political spending by corporations and unions.

Gatekeeper (media)

The media's role in deciding which stories get attention.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.