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Sociology Unit 4: Social stratification and inequality

Societies rank people in hierarchies of class, race and gender that shape life chances.

Covers: Systems of stratification, social class, social mobility, poverty, global stratification, race and ethnicity, gender

Study guide

Social stratification is a society's ranking of people in a hierarchy. Closed systems, like caste systems, allow little movement and assign status at birth. Open systems, like class systems, allow social mobility based partly on achievement; meritocracy ranks people by merit. The Davis-Moore thesis, a functionalist view, argues that inequality motivates people to fill important jobs. Marx argued that the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, exploit the proletariat. Weber described stratification along three dimensions: class (economic position), status (prestige) and power. Socioeconomic status combines income, education and occupation.

Social mobility is movement within the hierarchy. It can be upward or downward, intragenerational (within one person's life) or intergenerational (between generations), and structural mobility results from changes in the economy. Income is what people earn, and wealth is what they own. Absolute poverty means lacking basic needs, while relative poverty means having much less than others. The feminization of poverty describes the growing share of poor people who are women and children. Globally, high-income, middle-income and low-income countries differ widely; modernization theory blames tradition for poverty, while dependency theory blames colonialism and exploitation.

Race is a socially constructed category based on perceived physical differences, while ethnicity is shared culture, like language and religion. A minority group is subordinated in a society. Prejudice is an attitude and discrimination is an action; institutional discrimination is built into organizations and laws. Patterns of interaction include pluralism, assimilation, segregation and genocide. Sex is biological, and gender is the socially constructed set of roles and expectations. Gender stratification shows up in the gender pay gap, the glass ceiling, and the second shift of housework and child care. Intersectionality, a term from Kimberlé Crenshaw, examines how race, class and gender combine to shape experiences.

Gerontology studies aging, and ageism is prejudice and discrimination against older people. Disengagement theory, a functionalist view, says older people naturally and beneficially withdraw from roles so younger people can take over. Activity theory says older people are happier when they stay active and involved. Conflict theorists stress age-based inequality, and the growing share of people over 65 strains programs like Social Security and Medicare. Thanatology is the study of death and dying. Elisabeth Kübler-Ross described five stages of facing death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance.

Status consistency is how closely a person's rankings on income, education and occupation match. A wealthy business owner with little schooling has low status consistency. Melvin Tumin criticized the Davis-Moore thesis because stratification can block talented people from important positions, and pay often doesn't match a job's social importance. Marx argued that under capitalism, workers become alienated from the products they make, the work process, other workers and their own human potential.

Scapegoat theory says frustrated dominant groups blame a weaker group for their problems. White privilege refers to the unearned advantages White people receive in a racially stratified society. Assimilation can be pictured as a melting pot (amalgamation, where groups blend into a new culture), while pluralism is a salad bowl where groups keep distinct identities. The model-minority stereotype portrays Asian Americans as uniformly successful, hiding real inequality. World-systems theory (Wallerstein) divides the world into core, semi-peripheral and peripheral nations, and countries can also be compared by gross national income per person adjusted for purchasing power (GNI PPP).

Key ideas

• Stratification ranks people; closed systems allow little mobility.
• Marx stressed class conflict; Weber added status and power.
• Mobility can be intergenerational, intragenerational or structural.
• Race and gender are social constructions.
• Intersectionality examines how inequalities overlap.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Confusing income (earnings) with wealth (assets owned).
• Confusing prejudice (attitude) with discrimination (behavior).

Words to know

Social stratification

A society's ranking of people in a hierarchy.

Caste system

A closed system with status assigned at birth.

Class system

An open system allowing some mobility.

Meritocracy

Ranking people based on merit.

Davis-Moore thesis

The functionalist view that inequality benefits society.

Bourgeoisie

Owners of the means of production.

Proletariat

Workers who sell their labor.

Socioeconomic status

A ranking based on income, education and occupation.

Social mobility

Movement up or down the social hierarchy.

Intergenerational mobility

Change in status between parents and children.

Structural mobility

Mobility caused by changes in the economy.

Wealth

The total value of what a person owns.

Absolute poverty

Lacking basic needs like food and shelter.

Relative poverty

Having much less than others in a society.

Feminization of poverty

The rising share of the poor who are women.

Race

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical traits.

Ethnicity

A shared cultural heritage.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of a group.

Institutional discrimination

Bias built into the operations of institutions.

Gender

The socially constructed roles and expectations for men and women.

Second shift

Housework and child care after paid work.

Intersectionality

How race, class and gender combine to shape experience.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.