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Sociology Unit 1: The sociological perspective and research methods

Sociology studies how society shapes people's lives, using theories and scientific research methods.

Covers: The sociological imagination, founders of sociology, theoretical perspectives, the research process, research methods, ethics

Study guide

Sociology is the scientific study of society and human behavior in groups. C. Wright Mills described the sociological imagination as the ability to connect personal troubles to larger public issues; for example, one person losing a job is a personal trouble, but millions losing jobs in a recession is a public issue. Sociology emerged during the Industrial Revolution as thinkers tried to understand rapid social change. Auguste Comte coined the term sociology and promoted positivism, using science to study society. Émile Durkheim studied social facts and showed that suicide rates reflect social integration. Karl Marx focused on class conflict, and Max Weber emphasized the meanings people attach to their actions (verstehen) and the rise of bureaucracy. W.E.B. Du Bois studied race and described double consciousness, and Harriet Martineau was an early sociologist who translated Comte and studied social life.

Sociologists use three main theoretical perspectives. Structural functionalism sees society as a system of parts that work together for stability; parts have manifest (intended) and latent (unintended) functions. Conflict theory sees society as an arena of inequality and competition for scarce resources. Symbolic interactionism, a micro-level perspective, studies how people create meaning through everyday interactions. Functionalism and conflict theory are macro-level perspectives. Feminist theory examines gender inequality.

The research process includes defining a problem, reviewing literature, forming a hypothesis, choosing a method, collecting and analyzing data, and sharing results. Methods include surveys (questionnaires and interviews), experiments (testing cause and effect with independent and dependent variables), participant observation and ethnography, and secondary analysis of existing data. Researchers aim for reliability (consistent results) and validity (measuring what they intend to). Correlation doesn't prove causation, and spurious correlations come from a third variable. Ethical research requires informed consent, confidentiality and avoiding harm, with review by an institutional review board.

A population is the whole group being studied, and a sample is the part actually surveyed. In a random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen, which makes the sample representative and lets results be generalized. An operational definition spells out exactly how an abstract concept will be measured, such as defining "religiosity" as the number of services attended per month. A case study examines one person, group or event in depth. It gives rich detail but can't easily be generalized.

Weber argued that sociologists should practice value neutrality, keeping their personal values from biasing how they collect and report data. Researchers should also disclose funding sources that could create a conflict of interest. Herbert Blumer, building on Mead, coined the term symbolic interactionism. He argued that people act toward things based on the meanings those things have for them, and that these meanings come from social interaction.

Quantitative research uses numerical data like surveys and statistics, while qualitative research uses words and observations like interviews and fieldwork. Unobtrusive methods, such as content analysis of existing records, don't affect the people studied (they're nonreactive).

Key ideas

• The sociological imagination connects personal troubles to public issues.
• Durkheim, Marx and Weber shaped early sociology.
• Functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism are the main perspectives.
• Sociologists use surveys, experiments, observation and existing data.
• Ethical research needs informed consent and protection from harm.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Confusing reliability (consistent) with validity (accurate).
• Thinking symbolic interactionism is a macro perspective; it's micro.

Words to know

Sociology

The scientific study of society and group behavior.

Sociological imagination

Connecting personal troubles to public issues.

Positivism

Using scientific methods to study society.

Auguste Comte

Founder who coined the term sociology.

Émile Durkheim

Sociologist who studied social facts and suicide.

Max Weber

Sociologist who studied meaning, bureaucracy and the Protestant ethic.

W.E.B. Du Bois

Sociologist who studied race and double consciousness.

Structural functionalism

Perspective viewing society as parts working for stability.

Manifest function

An intended consequence of a social structure.

Latent function

An unintended consequence of a social structure.

Conflict theory

Perspective viewing society as competition over resources.

Symbolic interactionism

Micro perspective on meaning in everyday interaction.

Hypothesis

A testable statement about a relationship between variables.

Independent variable

The variable that causes a change.

Dependent variable

The variable that changes in response.

Participant observation

Researching by joining a group's activities.

Reliability

Consistency of a measurement.

Validity

Whether a measurement captures what it intends to.

Spurious correlation

A relationship caused by a third variable.

Informed consent

Participants' agreement after learning about a study's risks.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.