Home / Courses / Human Geography / Unit 4

Human Geography Unit 4: Political patterns and processes

Political geography studies how states, boundaries and international organizations organize space and power.

Covers: States, nations and nation-states, boundaries, forms of governance, devolution, supranationalism

Study guide

A state is a politically organized territory with a permanent population, a government and sovereignty. A nation is a group with a shared culture and identity. A nation-state, like Japan, has one dominant nation. A multinational state contains multiple nations, and a multistate nation, like the Kurds or Koreans, spreads across several states. A stateless nation has no state of its own, like the Kurds or Palestinians. Imperialism and colonialism expanded European control and drew many modern borders. Self-determination is a people's right to govern themselves.

Boundaries separate states. Antecedent boundaries were drawn before people settled; subsequent boundaries were drawn after settlement, often along cultural lines; superimposed boundaries were imposed by outside powers, like many African borders from the Berlin Conference; and relic boundaries no longer function, like the Berlin Wall. Geometric boundaries follow straight lines, often latitude. Boundary disputes can be definitional (the wording of a treaty), locational (where the line is), operational (how the border works) or allocational (resources). Under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, states control territorial waters 12 nautical miles out and an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 200 nautical miles out.

States are governed in unitary or federal systems. Shapes affect governance: compact states are efficient, elongated states (Chile) are hard to connect, fragmented states (Indonesia) are split into pieces, prorupted states have an extension, and perforated states surround another state (South Africa around Lesotho). Gerrymandering redraws electoral districts to favor a party. Centripetal forces unify a state, like nationalism and shared religion; centrifugal forces divide it, like ethnic conflict and uneven development. Devolution transfers power to regions and can lead to separatism. Supranational organizations, like the UN, EU, NATO and ASEAN, bring states together and require giving up some sovereignty.

In a federal system (the US, Canada, Germany, Nigeria), power is constitutionally shared between the national government and states or provinces, which control things like education, policing and some taxes. Federal systems often suit large or culturally diverse countries. In a unitary system (France, Japan, China), the central government holds most power and local units carry out national policy, which allows more uniform rules. Gerrymandering works by 'packing' a group's voters into a few districts so their extra votes are wasted, or 'cracking' them across many districts so they are a minority everywhere. Drawing a majority-minority district can increase an ethnic group's chance to elect its preferred candidate, but courts limit districts drawn mainly by race.

Internal boundaries, such as those of states, counties, cities and voting districts, divide a country for administration, taxation, service delivery and representation. They also determine which government controls schools, police and land use in a given place. Communication technology challenges state sovereignty because information, money and ideas cross borders instantly. Satellites, the internet and social media let separatist or opposition groups organize and spread messages that governments struggle to censor. Some states respond by filtering or shutting down the internet.

Large metropolitan areas are often split among many separate cities, counties and even states. Regional projects such as transit lines, water systems or sprawl control then need agreement and funding from many governments, which can stall planning. Devolution is driven by physical factors (distance, mountains or water separating regions), cultural ones (ethnic, linguistic or religious differences, as in Catalonia, Scotland or Quebec), economic ones (a wealthy region resenting supporting poorer ones), and the spread of communication technology. Extreme centrifugal forces can lead to terrorism, ethnic cleansing or the breakup of a state.

Key ideas

• States have sovereignty; nations share identity.
• Boundaries can be antecedent, subsequent, superimposed or relic.
• State shape affects how easily a country is governed.
• Centripetal forces unify; centrifugal forces divide.
• Supranational organizations trade some sovereignty for cooperation.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Confusing centripetal (unifying) and centrifugal (dividing) forces.
• Mixing up antecedent (before settlement) and subsequent (after settlement) boundaries.

Words to know

Nation-state

A state with one dominant nation.

Multinational state

A state with several nations.

Multistate nation

A nation spread across several states.

Stateless nation

A nation without its own state.

Self-determination

A people's right to govern themselves.

Antecedent boundary

Boundary drawn before an area was settled.

Subsequent boundary

Boundary drawn after settlement, often along cultural lines.

Superimposed boundary

Boundary imposed by outside powers.

Relic boundary

A former boundary that no longer functions.

Geometric boundary

Boundary following a straight line.

Exclusive economic zone

Sea area up to 200 nautical miles where a state controls resources.

Compact state

A state with a roughly circular shape.

Elongated state

A long, narrow state.

Fragmented state

A state divided into separate pieces.

Perforated state

A state that completely surrounds another.

Gerrymandering

Redrawing districts to favor a party.

Centripetal force

A force that unifies a state.

Centrifugal force

A force that divides a state.

Supranational organization

A group of states working together, like the EU.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.