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European History Unit 7: Nineteenth-century perspectives and political developments

Nationalism unified Italy and Germany, European powers built empires, and new scientific ideas challenged traditional beliefs.

Covers: Nationalism, Italian and German unification, Realpolitik, reform in Russia, the New Imperialism, science and new ideas, Romanticism and Realism

Study guide

Nationalism transformed Europe. In Italy, Count Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia used diplomacy and war, Giuseppe Garibaldi's Red Shirts conquered the south, and Italy was unified in 1861 (completed in 1870). Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy promoted nationalist ideals. In Germany, Otto von Bismarck of Prussia used Realpolitik, practical power politics, and 'blood and iron.' Wars against Denmark, Austria and France led to the German Empire in 1871. Bismarck then built alliances to isolate France and introduced social welfare programs to undercut socialists. Austria responded to Hungarian nationalism with the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary, 1867).

Russia reformed after losing the Crimean War (1853–1856). Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861, but reforms were limited and he was assassinated. In France, Napoleon III ruled the Second Empire until defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, followed by the Third Republic. The Dreyfus Affair revealed antisemitism in France and helped inspire Theodor Herzl's Zionism.

The New Imperialism expanded European control in Africa and Asia, justified by Social Darwinism and the civilizing mission and made possible by steamships, the Maxim gun and quinine. The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) divided Africa. Science and thought shifted: Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection challenged religious views, Freud explored the unconscious mind, Einstein's relativity changed physics, and Nietzsche questioned traditional morality. In the arts, Realism depicted everyday life, and later Impressionism and modernism broke with tradition.

After defeating Austria in 1866, Prussia formed the North German Confederation. Bismarck then provoked war with France by editing the Ems Dispatch to sound insulting. Victory let Germany annex Alsace-Lorraine, which left France bitter and eager for revenge (revanchism). In the Kulturkampf, Bismarck attacked the Catholic Church's influence in the new empire. He later passed anti-socialist laws while introducing health, accident and old-age insurance.

Cavour won French military help against Austria by ceding Nice and Savoy, and Garibaldi handed his southern conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II. Italy gained Venetia in 1866 by siding with Prussia, and Rome in 1870 after French troops left. The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom. After Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck in 1890, Germany let its Reinsurance Treaty with Russia lapse and pursued Weltpolitik and a naval buildup. This pushed France and Russia into an alliance (1894) and drew Britain toward the Entente.

King Leopold II of Belgium ruled the Congo Free State as his personal possession, using forced labor and brutal punishments to extract rubber. International outrage forced Belgium to take control in 1908.

Key ideas

• Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini led Italian unification.
• Bismarck unified Germany through Realpolitik and war.
• Russia freed its serfs after the Crimean War, but reforms were limited.
• The New Imperialism divided Africa and Asia among European powers.
• Darwin, Freud and Einstein challenged traditional beliefs.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Confusing Cavour (diplomat) with Garibaldi (military leader).
• Thinking Germany unified peacefully; Bismarck used three wars.

Words to know

Nationalism

Loyalty to a nation and its people.

Cavour

Piedmontese prime minister who led Italian unification through diplomacy.

Garibaldi

Leader of the Red Shirts who conquered southern Italy.

Mazzini

Founder of Young Italy, a nationalist movement.

Otto von Bismarck

Prussian chancellor who unified Germany.

Realpolitik

Practical power politics rather than ideals.

Blood and iron

Bismarck's phrase for using war to unify Germany.

Dual Monarchy

The 1867 Austria-Hungary arrangement.

Crimean War

1853–1856 war that exposed Russian weakness.

Emancipation of the serfs

Alexander II's 1861 decree freeing Russian serfs.

Dreyfus Affair

French scandal over a Jewish officer falsely convicted of treason.

Zionism

Movement for a Jewish homeland.

New Imperialism

Late 19th-century expansion of European empires.

Charles Darwin

Scientist who proposed evolution by natural selection.

Realism (art)

Art and literature depicting everyday life accurately.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.