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Comparative Government Unit 3: Political culture and participation

Citizens' values, ideologies and forms of participation shape how political systems work.

Covers: Civil society, political culture and socialization, political ideologies, political participation, civil rights and liberties, cleavages

Study guide

Civil society is the network of organizations independent of the state, like religious groups, charities, unions and media. A strong civil society can hold governments accountable; authoritarian states often restrict it. China tightly controls NGOs, Russia labels some groups 'foreign agents,' and Iran limits independent media. Political culture is a society's shared beliefs about politics, and political socialization is how people learn those beliefs, through family, schools, media, religion and peers. Governments may promote nationalism or official ideology, as China does through education and media.

Political ideologies offer different views on freedom, equality and the role of the state. Liberalism emphasizes individual freedom and limited government; socialism emphasizes equality and state involvement in the economy; communism seeks a classless society with state ownership; fascism emphasizes extreme nationalism and authoritarian rule. Religious ideologies, like Iran's theocracy, base politics on faith. Citizens participate by voting, joining parties and interest groups, protesting and engaging in social movements. Participation can be voluntary or state-controlled. Social movements, like Mexico's Zapatistas or Iran's Green Movement and Woman, Life, Freedom protests, push for change.

Civil rights protect equal treatment, and civil liberties protect freedoms like speech and religion. Governments may restrict these, especially in authoritarian systems: China censors the internet and represses the Uyghurs, and Iran enforces dress codes and limits speech. Cleavages are divisions within society, based on ethnicity, religion, region or class. Nigeria's major cleavage is between the mostly Muslim north and mostly Christian south, along with ethnic divisions among the Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo. Cleavages can be cross-cutting (reducing conflict) or coinciding (reinforcing it).

Mexico guarantees free speech and press in law, but it is one of the world's most dangerous countries for journalists. Cartel violence, impunity for attacks and pressure from officials limit civil liberties in practice, so its democracy scores lag its competitive elections. Democracies also restrict movements, usually to protect public order or other people's rights. The UK's Public Order Act 2023 expanded police powers against disruptive protest tactics, and governments can ban groups that use violence. Courts and elections let citizens challenge these limits.

In 2020, the #EndSARS movement, led largely by young people online, protested police brutality by Nigeria's Special Anti-Robbery Squad. The government disbanded the unit, but security forces fired on protesters at the Lekki toll gate in Lagos. The episode shows both the power and the limits of social movements in a flawed democracy. Since its 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has criminalized 'discrediting' the army, labeled many NGOs and media 'undesirable,' blocked major Western social media platforms and sentenced protesters to long prison terms. These measures have nearly eliminated organized opposition.

Key ideas

• Civil society holds governments accountable when it's independent.
• Political socialization passes on political values.
• Ideologies differ on freedom, equality and the role of the state.
• Authoritarian states restrict civil liberties and civil society.
• Coinciding cleavages reinforce conflict; cross-cutting cleavages reduce it.

Formulas and rules

Common mistakes

• Confusing civil rights (equal treatment) with civil liberties (freedoms from government).
• Thinking civil society includes government agencies; it's independent of the state.

Words to know

Civil society

Voluntary organizations independent of the state.

Political culture

A society's shared beliefs about politics and government.

Political socialization

The process of learning political values.

Liberalism

Ideology emphasizing individual freedom and limited government.

Socialism

Ideology emphasizing equality and state involvement in the economy.

Communism

Ideology seeking a classless society with state ownership.

Fascism

Ideology of extreme nationalism and authoritarian rule.

Theocracy

Government based on religious law and authority.

Political participation

Ways citizens take part in politics.

Social movement

A large group pushing for political or social change.

Civil rights

Protections ensuring equal treatment.

Civil liberties

Freedoms protected from government interference.

Cleavage

A division within society, like ethnicity or religion.

Coinciding cleavages

Divisions that overlap and reinforce each other.

Cross-cutting cleavages

Divisions that cut across each other, reducing conflict.

Sample practice questions

5 more questions like these, from level 1 to 5, are in the practice set.